Treaties and International Agreements

Agreement under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (adopted 19 June 2023, entered into force 17 January 2026, New York). (BBNJ Agreement).

Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (adopted 25 June 1998, entered into force 30 October 2001, Aarhus) 2161 UNTS 447. (Aarhus Convention).

Convention on Biological Diversity (adopted 22 May 1992, entered into force 29 December 1993, Nairobi) 1760 UNTS 79. (CBD).

Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (adopted 25 February 1991, entered into force 10 September 1997, Espoo) 1989 UNTS 309. (Espoo Convention).

Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (adopted 20 October 1972, entered into force 15 July 1977, London) 1050 UNTS 16. (COLREGS).

Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (adopted 16 June 1972, Stockholm). (Stockholm Declaration).

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (adopted 2 November 1973; entered into force 2 October 1983, London) 12 ILM 1319. (MARPOL)

Paris Agreement to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (adopted 12 December 2015, entered into force 4 November 2016) 3156 UNTS 79. (Paris Agreement)

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (adopted 14 June 1992, Rio de Janeiro). (Rio Declaration)

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (adopted 10 December 1982, entered into force 16 November 1994, Montego Bay) 1833 UNTS 3. (UNCLOS).

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (adopted 9 May 1992, entered into force 21 March 1994, New York) 1771 UNTS 107. (UNFCCC).

Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (adopted 23 May 1969, entered into force 27 January 1980, Vienna) 1155 UNTS 331. (VCLT)

Case law

Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea‑Bissau v Senegal) (Judgement, 21 November 1991) [1991] ICJ Rep 53.

Gabčíkovo–Nagymaros Project (Hungary/Slovakia) (Judgment, 25 September 1997) [1997] ICJ Rep 7.

M/V “Saiga” (No 2) (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines v Guinea) (Judgment, 1 July 1999) ITLOS Rep 1999.

M/V “Virginia G” (Panama v Guinea‑Bissau) (Judgment, 14 April 2014) ITLOS Rep 2014 4 (Case No 19).

Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v Uruguay) (Judgment, 20 April 2010) [2010] ICJ Rep 14.

Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Commission of Small Island States on Climate Change and International Law (Advisory Opinion, 21 May 2024) ITLOS Rep 2024 (Case No 31). (COSIS Advisory Opinion)

Request for an Advisory Opinion Submitted by the Sub‑Regional Fisheries Commission (Advisory Opinion, 2 April 2015) ITLOS Rep 2015 (Case No 21).

Responsibilities and Obligations of States Sponsoring Persons and Entities with Respect to Activities in the Area (Advisory Opinion, 1 February 2011) ITLOS Rep 2011.

South China Sea Arbitration (Philippines v China) (Award, 12 July 2016) PCA Case No 2013‑19.

Legislation

European Commission, ‘Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction’ COM(2025) 090 (final) (24 April 2025).

Books

Craik N, ‘The International Law of Environmental Impact Assessment: Process, Substance and Integration’ (Cambridge University Press 2008).

Nguyen LN, ‘The Development of the Law of the Sea by UNCLOS Dispute Settlement Bodies (Cambridge University Press 2023).

Ruud M and Ulfstein G, ‘Innføring i folkerett‘ (4th edn, Universitetsforlaget 2011).

Chapters in Edited Volumes

Barnes R, ‘Flag States’ in Donald R Rothwell and others (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Law of the Sea (Oxford University Press 2016) 306.

Guilfoyle D in Donald R Rothwell and others (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Law of the Sea (Oxford University Press 2016) ch 10.

Henriksen T, ‘Regulating Shipping under Conditions of Uncertainty: The Arctic Ocean and Knowledge-Based Decision-Making’ in Rayfuse R, Jaeckel A and Klein N (eds), Research Handbook on International Marine Environmental Law (2nd edn, Edward Elgar Publishing 2023) 218-239

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ‘Technical Summary’ in Pörtner, H-O and others (eds), Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (Cambridge University Press 2019) page 58

Pozdnakova A, ‘The IMO and Treaties: Appraisal of the IMO’s Contribution to Future Ocean Governance’ in Laura Carballo Piñeiro and Máximo Q Mejia Jr (eds), The Elgar Companion to the Law and Practice of the International Maritime Organization (Edward Elgar 2024) 86–111.

Journal Articles

Antsygina E, ‘Interpreting the Non-Undermining Clause of the BBNJ Agreement: Restrictive or Complementary Roles for the COP within RFMO Competences?’ (2024) 28 Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law 46.

Bodansky D, ‘Four Treaties in One: The Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement’ (2024) 118 American Journal of International Law 299

Boyle A, ‘Developments in the International Law of Environmental Impact Assessments and their Relation to the Espoo Convention’ (2011) 20 Review of European Community & International Environmental Law 227

Boyle A, ‘Further Development of the Law of the Sea Convention: Mechanisms for Change’ (2005) 54(4) International and Comparative Law Quarterly 565.

Cavalcanti de Mello Filho E, ‘From “Flags of Convenience” to “Flags of Deceit”: The Future of the Law Governing the Nationality of Ships’ (2025) 74(‘S1’) International and Comparative Law Quarterly 121

Gaunce J, ‘On the Interpretation of the General Duty of “Due Regard”’ (2018) 32 Ocean Yearbook 1.

Gullett W and Craik N, ‘Precautionary Environmental Impact Assessments under the BBNJ Agreement: More than a Minor or Transitory Effect on the Marine Environment?’ (2025) Ocean Development & International Law

Jiang N, Wang J and Pan X, ‘Implementing the EIA Provisions of the BBNJ Agreement in the International Seabed Area: Obstacles and Recommendations’ (2026) 13 Frontiers in Marine Science Page 17

Knox J, ‘The Myth and Reality of Transboundary Environmental Impact Assessment’ (2002) 96 American Journal of International Law 291.

Mbengue MM, ‘Rules of Interpretation (Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties)’ (2016) 31 ICSID Review – Foreign Investment Law Journal, Vol. 31, issue 2, 388.

McConnell ML, ‘Business as Usual: An Evaluation of the 1986 United Nations Convention on the Conditions for Registration of Ships’ (1987) 18 Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce 435.

Moldanová J and others, ‘Framework for the Environmental Impact Assessment of Operational Shipping’ (2021) 51(3) Ambio 754.

O’Hara CC, Frazier M and Halpern BS, ‘At-risk marine biodiversity faces extensive, expanding, and intensifying human impacts’ (2021) 372 Science (6537) 84

Pozdnakova A, ‘The High Seas Treaty and Shipping’ (2023) 570/2023 MarIus Ricard P, ‘The Advent of the 2023 “BBNJ” Agreement: A Preliminary Legal Analysis’ (2024) 53 Environmental Policy and Law 1

Rogers AD and others, ‘The High Seas and Us: Understanding the Value of High Seas Ecosystems’ (2014) 23 Global Ecology and Biogeography 1.

Ruozzi E, ‘The Obligation to Undertake an Environmental Assessment in the Jurisprudence of the ICJ: A Principle in Search of Autonomy’ (2017) 8 European Journal of Risk Regulation 158

Scott KN, ‘Cold Cooperation: Reconciling the Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction Agreement and the Antarctic Treaty System’ (2025) 74(3) International and Comparative Law Quarterly 587.

Tanaka Y, ‘Reflections on the Environmental Impact Assessment in the BBNJ Agreement: Its Implications for the Conservation of Biological Diversity in the Marine Arctic beyond National Jurisdiction’ (2024) 55(1–2) Ocean Development and International Law 85.

Tsioumanis A, ‘UN Marine Negotiations: The Third Intergovernmental Conference and Future Prospects for the Ocean Negotiations’ (2020) 50(3) Environmental Policy and Law 201.

Tzeng P, ‘Jurisdiction and Applicable Law Under UNCLOS’ (2016) Vol. 126, Number 1 Yale Law Journal 245.

Warner RM, ‘Conserving Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Co-Evolution and Interaction with the Law of the Sea’ (20 May 2014) Frontiers in Marine Science, Vol. 1 2014

Zhu M and Qu L, ‘Text classification of issues concerning implementation of IMO instruments based on deep bidirectional language representation model’ (11 December 2025) 6 Discover Artificial Intelligence (2026) art no 28.

Reports and Institutional Publications

Arctic Council, ‘Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment 2009 Report’ (Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment Working Group, Arctic Council 2009).

Beckman R, ‘IMO Seminar on Development of a Regulatory Framework for Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS)’ (September 2022, Centre for International Law, National University of Singapore).

IPBES, editors Brondizio ES, Díaz S, Settele J and Ngo HT, ‘Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services’ (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019).

Churchill R and Hedley C, ‘The Meaning of the “Genuine Link” Requirement in Relation to the Nationality of Ships’ (International Transport Workers’ Federation 2000).

Clarke Murray C, Mach ME and Martone RG, ‘Cumulative Effects in Marine Ecosystems: Scientific Perspectives on Its Challenges and Solutions’ (WWF-Canada & Center for Ocean Solutions 2014).

Epiney A, ‘Environmental Impact Assessment’ in Wolfrum R (ed), Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (online edn, Oxford University Press, January 2009) Hosanee N, ‘A Critical Analysis of Flag State Duties as Laid Down under Article 94 of the 1982 UNCLOS’ (United Nations Nippon Foundation Fellowship Research Paper 2009).

International Chamber of Shipping, ‘Textual Proposals Submitted by Delegations by 20 February 2020 for Consideration at the Fourth Session of the Intergovernmental Conference’ [Position Paper] (2020)

International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) World Commission on Environmental Law, ‘IUCN Commentary on the Further Revised Draft Text of an Agreement under UNCLOS on Marine Biodiversity in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction’ (8 August 2022).

Palmer B, Turrentine J, ‘Finally, a High Seas Treaty to Protect the World’s Oceans’ (Natural Resources Defense Council, 14 April 2023).

United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (UN DOALOS), ‘Chronological Lists of Ratifications, Accessions and Successions to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea’ (Status as at 10 May 2026) https://www.un.org/Depts/los/reference_files/chronological_lists_of_ratifications.htmaccessed 10 May 2026.

United Nations Environment Programme, ‘Making Peace with Nature: A Scientific Blueprint to Tackle the Climate, Biodiversity and Pollution Emergencies’ (18 February 2021) https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/34948/MPN.pdfaccessed 14 May 2026.

United Nations, The Sustainable Development Goals Report 2023 (United Nations 2023).

Other Secondary Sources

European Commission (DG Maritime Affairs and Fisheries), ‘A Win for the Ocean: High Seas Treaty Signed at United Nations’ (Press Release, 20 September 2023) https://oceans-and-fisheries.ec.europa.eu/news/win-ocean-high-seas-treaty-signed-united-nations-2023-09-20_en accessed 14 September 2024.

High Seas Alliance, ‘How Could the EIA Provisions of the BBNJ Agreement Apply to Activities and Existing Bodies?’ (July 2021) https://www.highseasalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/FINAL-How-would-the-EIA-provisions-of-the-BBNJ-Treaty-apply-in-practice-7.8.21.pdf accessed 20 April 2026.

Lyons YLB, ‘EIAs under the BBNJ Agreement: Implications for Shipping’ (ACOPS–CIL Workshop Presentation, 2024) https://cil.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/Session-4-EIA-and-BBNJ-Y-Lyons.pdf accessed 10 May 2026.

‘Marine verneområder på åpent hav i Arktis’ (Master’s thesis, University of Bergen 2020) https://bora.uib.no/bora-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2738029/140_JUS399_H20.pdf accessed 15 September 2024.

One Ocean Science Congress 2025 (Craik N and Scott K), ‘Environmental Impact Assessment under the BBNJ Agreement and the Equivalence Exception’ (Conference Paper, 3–6 June 2025) https://doi.org/10.5194/oos2025-713 accessed 12 April 2026.

United Nations, ‘Marine Biodiversity: Landmark Agreement Adopted’ (UN Sustainable Development Goals, August 2023) https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2023/08/marine-biodiversity-landmark-agreement-adopted/ accessed 30 April 2025

United Nations, ‘Goal 14: Conserve and Sustainably Use the Oceans, Seas and Marine Resources’ (UN Sustainable Development Goals, accessed 14 September 2024) https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/oceans/.